In Islam, the Quran is regarded as the literal word of Allah, revealed to Prophet Muhammad ﷺ through the angel Jibril (Gabriel) over a period of 23 years, beginning in 610 CE. The Prophet himself did not write the Quran, as he was Ummi (unlettered). Instead, he recited the revelations to his companions, who memorized them (ḥifz) and also recorded them on various materials such as parchment, bones, and palm leaves. After the Prophet’s death in 632 CE, Caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddiq tasked Zayd ibn Thabit, one of the Prophet’s main scribes, with compiling the Quran into a single collection, to preserve it following heavy casualties among memorizers in the Battle of Yamama.
The Quran was later standardized during the caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656 CE) to prevent variations in recitation. Uthman ordered several copies of the Uthmanic Codex to be sent to key Islamic centers, establishing the authoritative version that Muslims continue to use today. Early manuscripts, such as the Birmingham Quran Manuscript, carbon-dated to the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad, provide historical evidence supporting the Quran’s early preservation. While some modern academic debates examine textual history, Islamic belief holds that the Quran has remained unchanged and divinely preserved since its revelation.
Who Wrote the Quran?
How Was the Quran Revealed to Prophet Muhammad?
The Quran was revealed to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in fragments through the angel Gabriel, beginning in 610 CE during the month of Ramadan. These revelations occurred over 23 years, addressing theological, legal, and moral themes. Muhammad, who was considered illiterate (referred to as “ummi”), conveyed the verses orally to his followers.
Companions memorized the revelations and transcribed them on available materials, including animal skins and palm stalks. The process was incremental, with verses often responding to specific events or questions during Muhammad’s prophethood in Mecca and Medina. The Quran’s oral tradition remains central, with millions of Muslims worldwide memorizing the entire text.
What Role Did Muhammad’s Companions Play in Preserving the Quran?
Muhammad’s companions served as scribes and memorizers, ensuring the Quran’s preservation during and after his lifetime. Key figures like Zayd ibn Thabit documented verses as they were revealed. Others, such as Ubayy ibn Ka’b and Abdullah ibn Mas’ud, maintained personal copies.
After Muhammad’s death, Caliph Abu Bakr commissioned Zayd to compile a unified manuscript, cross-referencing written fragments with memorized recitations. This manuscript was later used by Caliph Uthman to standardize the text, resolving regional dialectal variations. The destruction of non-conforming copies ensured uniformity across the expanding Islamic empire.
When and How Was the Quran Compiled into a Single Book?
The Quran was first compiled into a single book under Caliph Abu Bakr (r. 632–634 CE) following Muhammad’s death. Fearing the loss of oral transmitters in battles, Abu Bakr ordered Zayd ibn Thabit to collect all written and memorized verses. The compiled manuscript was entrusted to Hafsa bint Umar, a widow of Muhammad.
Caliph Uthman (r. 644–656 CE) later standardized the text, producing copies in the Qurayshi dialect and distributing them to major cities like Damascus and Kufa. This effort eliminated discrepancies arising from regional recitations, solidifying the Uthmanic codex as the definitive version.
Are There Earlier Manuscripts That Predate Muhammad?
Some carbon-dated manuscript fragments, like those found in Sanaa, Yemen, suggest textual layers that may predate Muhammad’s prophethood. These findings have sparked academic debate about potential pre-Islamic influences on the Quran. However, Islamic tradition rejects this view, asserting the text’s divine origin and chronological revelation to Muhammad.
The Birmingham Quran manuscript, dated between 568–645 CE, aligns closely with Muhammad’s lifetime, supporting the Islamic narrative of early written preservation. While variant readings exist, the Uthmanic codex remains the canonical text recognized by Sunni and Shia Muslims.
How Does the Quran Compare to Other Religious Texts in Origin?
Unlike the Bible, which is a compilation of texts by multiple authors over centuries, the Quran is considered a direct, verbatim revelation to a single prophet. Its 114 surahs (chapters) and over 6,000 verses were revealed in Arabic and compiled within decades of Muhammad’s death.
The Quran’s oral transmission parallels the Vedic traditions of Hinduism, but its rapid standardization under Uthman distinguishes it from texts like the Hebrew Bible, which underwent longer editorial processes. The Quran’s linguistic inimitability (i’jaz) is central to its theological claim of divine authorship.
What Is the Islamic View on the Quran’s Preservation?
Muslims believe the Quran has been perfectly preserved without alteration since its revelation. The Uthmanic standardization, coupled with rigorous memorization (hifz), ensures textual integrity. Over 10 million Muslims today have memorized the entire Quran, reinforcing its oral continuity.
Modern print editions, such as the 1924 Cairo edition, adhere strictly to the Uthmanic script. Discrepancies in vowel markings or calligraphy do not affect the consonantal text, which remains unchanged from the 7th century.
How Do Non-Muslim Scholars Interpret the Quran’s Authorship?
Some secular scholars propose that the Quran incorporates pre-existing Arabian, Jewish, and Christian traditions, pointing to thematic parallels in biblical stories. Figures like Patricia Crone and Michael Cook have questioned the traditional narrative, suggesting gradual compilation.
Mainstream academia acknowledges the Quran’s early 7th-century origin but debates the extent of communal input. The Sanaa palimpsest, showing erased layers beneath the Uthmanic text, fuels theories of textual evolution. Islamic scholarship uniformly rejects these claims, upholding the Quran’s divine revelation.
Why Is the Quran Recited in Arabic?
Arabic is considered the sacred language of the Quran, as the revelation was delivered in the dialect of the Quraysh tribe. Muslims believe translations cannot fully capture its linguistic and spiritual nuances. Recitation (tajweed) follows strict phonetic rules to preserve the original sound.
Non-Arabic speakers are encouraged to learn Arabic for worship, though translations are used for study. The Quran’s literary structure, including its rhymed prose (saj’), is cited as evidence of its miraculous nature.
What Evidence Supports the Quran’s Historical Authenticity?
Early manuscripts, including the Topkapi and Samarkand codices, match the Uthmanic text, corroborating its 7th-century origin. The Birmingham manuscript’s radiocarbon dating (568–645 CE) aligns with Islamic accounts of revelation during Muhammad’s lifetime.
Archaeological findings, like the Quranic inscriptions in the Dome of the Rock (692 CE), further validate its early circulation. Islamic historical records, such as Ibn Ishaq’s “Sirat Rasul Allah,” detail the compilation process with named scribes and witnesses.